Tag: Meg Fluharty

Later menopause linked with lower risk of depression

Posted on by rebeccalawn

by Meg Fluharty @MegEliz_

This blog originally appeared on the Mental Elf site on 17th February 2016.

Women have twice the risk of developing major depression compared to men. This difference is most noticeable during the reproductive period years (Soares et al, 2008) (e.g. premenstrual, during pregnancy and postpartum, and perimenopause) when women are subject to large fluctuations of ovarian hormones.

Additionally, oestrogens are believed to utilise neuroprotective and antidepressive actions within the the brain (Arevalo et al, 2015), and transitioning to the postmenopausal period is associated with a large drop in oestrogen production (Burger al al., 2007).

Therefore, the authors, Georgakis et al (2016), are using ‘age at menopause’ and ‘duration of reproductive age’ as two markers of lifelong oestrogen exposure to measure the association with risk of depression in postmenopausal women.

Research shows that the median age for final menstrual period is 52.5 years, and that 90% of women have their final period by the age of 56.

Research shows that the median age for final menstrual period is 52.5 years, and that 90% of women have their final period by the age of 56.

Methods

Search criteria

The authors conducted a search in MEDLINE using the following keywords: menopause, climacteric, reproductive period, depression, and mood disorders. The authors then searched reference lists of included studies to identify additional studies. There was no restriction on language, publication year or study design. Cross sectional and cohort studies were obviously going to be helpful, but randomised controlled trials were also considered for eligibility if they included depression measurements before intervention.

Definition of variables

  • Age of menopause was defined as 1 year following last menstruation (although studies examining age at final menstruation were also considered)
  • Duration of reproductive period was defined as age of menopause minus age of menarche
  • Diagnosis of depression was defined by clinical diagnosis or validated questionnaire

Excluded studies

Studies were excluded if they used questionnaires without defined cut-offs, or self-reported depression as a single question. Studies including only women with depression were excluded as were those which also had severe psychiatric disorders. Case series, case reports, in vitro and animal studies were excluded. Studies limited to perimenopausal (the period leading up to menopause) women, breast cancer survivors with medically induced menopause, or women with surgically induced menopausal transition were excluded.

Statistical analysis

The odds ratios (OR) and confidence intervals (CI) were pooled across the identified studies, and the analysis was conducted separately for the two exposure variables (age of menopause and duration of reproductive period). The variables were first analysed as continuous variables in 2 year increments, and age of menopause was analysed again as a categorical variables (≥40 vs <40).

Results

A total of 67,714 women were included across 10 cross sectional and 4 cohort studies.

  • 12 studies used self-report diagnosis of depression
  • 1 study used DSM-III-R diagnosis
  • 1 study used physician diagnosis.

Women without a diagnosis of depression were used as the control group.

Age at menopause

Pooling the effect estimates across 13 studies which treated age at menopause as a continuous variable (e.g. 2 year increments); increased age of menopause was associated with 2% decrease in risk of postmenopausal depression (OR, 0.98; 95% CI 0.96 to 0.99 heterogeneity I2=7.6%; P=.37). Sensitivity analyses for hormone therapy, premenopausal depression, or defining age at menopause as 1 year following last menstruation did alter the association.

In 4 studies with data on premature menopause (<40 years), twice the risk of depression was found compared to women with menopause onset over 40 years (OR, 0.49; 95% CI 0.29 to 0.81; heterogeneity I2=54.2%, p=.09).

Reproductive period

Pooling the effect estimates across 5 studies that includes reproductive period as a continuous variable (e.g. 2 year incriminates); found similar associations to age at menopause: a 2% decrease in risk of postmenopausal depression for an increase in reproductive period of 2 years (OR, 0.98; 95% CI 0.94 to 1.01; heterogeneity I2=0.0%; P=.41).

This evidence suggests that women who have the menopause later in life, are less likely to experience depression in their postmenopausal years.

This evidence suggests that women who have the menopause later in life, are less likely to experience depression in their postmenopausal years.

Discussion

This meta-analysis displayed an inverse relationship between the age of menopause and subsequent risk of postmenopausal depression, which prevailed after controlling for hormone therapy and premenopausal depression. Additionally, a similar effect was found within an analysis of the duration of reproductive period. These findings indicate that shorter exposure to endogenous oestrogen is associated with oestrogen deficiency and consequently heightened risk of depression after menopause.

To put it another way, the longer the period between menarche (first menses) and menopause (defined as final menstrual period or 1 year after final menstrual period), the lower the risk that the woman will experience depression in her postmenopausal years.

If these findings are confirmed within culturally diverse studies, they can be used to identify at-risk women for postmenopausal depression whom may benefit from either psychological monitoring or oestrogen-based therapy (Georgakis et al 2016).

Strengths and limitations

This systematic review featured a well-conducted meta-analysis, including a total of 67,714 women across 14 studies; and took important confounders into consideration (age, obesity, hormone therapy, smoking, and marital status). The authors conducted sensitivity analyses where necessary and there was no evidence of publication bias in the ‘age at menopause’ studies.

However, there were some limitations to consider:

  • Limiting their literature search just to the MEDLINE database will have resulted in many trials been missed, which is clearly a big weakness for any systematic review.
  • 12 of the 14 included studies used a self-report diagnosis of depression, rather than a diagnosis reached by a validated diagnostic instrument.
  • There were differences in the definition of depression, and depression cut-offs across studies.
  • The association of pre-existing depression and hormone therapy use on later depression should be considered; however the authors did conduct sensitivity analyses where possible.

Many women report a huge lack of information about the menopause, fuelled by a continuing stigma relating to this ubiquitous part of female human existence. This study provides some important pointers to risk factors and later life mental illness, which could be used to help educate women about their risk of depression as they age. However, given the limitations of this current review, we should look for further confirmation of these findings before we consider this question well and truly answered.

Do you talk to your female friends about the menopause?

Do you talk to your female friends about the menopause?

Links

Primary paper

Georgakis MK, Thomopoulos TP, Diamantaras A, et al. (2015) Association of Age at Menopause and Duration of Reproductive Period With Depression After Menopause: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. JAMA Psychiatry. Published online January 06, 2016. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2015.2653. [Abstract]

Other references

Soares CN, Zitek B. (2008) Reproductive hormone sensitivity and risk for depression across the female life cycle: a continuum of vulnerability? J Psychiatry Neurosci. 2008;33(4):331-343.

Arevalo MA, Azcoitia I, Garcia-Segura LM. (2015) The neuroprotective actions of oestradiol and oestrogen receptors. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2015;16(1): 17-29. [PubMed abstract]

Burger HG, Hale GE, Robertson DM, Dennerstein L. (2007) A review of hormonal changes during the menopausal transition: focus on findings from the Melbourne Women’s Midlife Health Project. Hum Reprod Update. 2007;13(6):559-565. [PubMed abstract]

If you’re looking for a good overview of recent evidence-based research, please read the Evidently Cochrane blogs on the Menopause.

Photo credits

– See more at: http://www.nationalelfservice.net/mental-health/depression/later-menopause-linked-with-lower-risk-of-depression/#sthash.v4Zbt9Fx.dpuf

Smoking and chronic mental illness: what’s the best way to quit or cut down?

Posted on by meryemgrabski

by Meg Fluharty @MegEliz_

This blog originally appeared on the Mental Elf site on 11th December 2015.

Smoking rates in the US and UK are 2-4 times higher in people with mental illnesses compared to those without (Lasser at al., 2000; Lawerence et al., 2009).

What’s more, smokers suffering from mental illness have higher nicotine dependence and lower quit rates (Smith et al.,2014; Weinberger et al., 2012; Cook et al 2014).

About half of deaths in people with chronic mental illness are due to tobacco related conditions (Callaghan et al., 2014; Kelly et al 2011).

A new ‘state of the art’ review in the BMJ by Tidey and Miller (2015) is therefore much needed, focusing as it does on the treatments currently available for smoking and chronic mental illness, such as schizophrenia, unipolar depression, bipolar depression, anxiety disorders and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

42% of all cigarettes smoked in England are consumed by people with mental health problems.

42% of all cigarettes smoked in England are consumed by people with mental health problems.

Methods

Tidey and Miller (2015) identified studies by searching keywords in PubMed and Science Direct, using relevant guidelines, reviews and meta-analyses, and data from the authors’ own files. Two authors reviewed the references and relevant studies were chosen and summarised. Only peer-reviewed articles published in English were reviewed.

It’s important to stress that this was not a systematic review, so the included studies were not graded, but simply summarised with a particular focus on outcomes.

BMJ State of the Art reviews are not systematic reviews, so are susceptible to the same biases as other literature reviews or expert opinion pieces.  

BMJ State of the Art reviews are not systematic reviews, so are susceptible to the same biases as other literature reviews or expert opinion pieces.

Results

Schizophrenia

Nicotine replacement therapy (NRT) plus psychosocial

Overall, in studies of NRT with psychosocial treatment (such as CBT) 13% of smokers with schizophrenia averaged 6 to 12 month quit rates. Additionally, those continuing to receive NRT had reduced relapse rates.

Bupropion

Studies investigating bupropion in smokers with schizophrenia found initial abstinence, but were followed by high relapse rates with treatment discontinuation, suggesting the need for longer treatment duration. One study found bupropion coupled with NRT and CBT reduced relapse rates. 

Varenicline

Studies investigating varenicline in smokers with schizophrenia achieved abstinence at the end of the trial (compared to placebo), but not at 12-month follow up. One study found varenicline and CBT had higher abstinence rates at 52 weeks (compared to controls). Psychiatric side effects reported did not differ between groups, suggesting varenicline is well tolerated in schizophrenia.

Psychosocial

Studies investigating psychosocial treatments in smokers with schizophrenia were varied. Studies implementing CBT displayed high continuous abstinence, and those receiving motivational interviewing were more likely to seek treatment. However, in contingency management trials (receiving monetary reward for abstinence) it appeared individuals might only be staying abstinent long enough for their reward, therefore longer trials are needed.

E-cigarettes

One (uncontrolled) study provided e-cigarettes for 52 weeks to smokers with schizophrenia, finding half reduced their smoking by 50% and 14% quit. None of the participants were seeking treatment for cessation at the start of the trial, suggesting a need for further RCTs of e-cigarettes in smokers with schizophrenia.

The Mental Elf looks forward to reporting on RCTs of e-cigarettes in smokers with schizophrenia.

The Mental Elf looks forward to reporting on RCTs of e-cigarettes in smokers with schizophrenia.

Unipolar depression

A review of the cessation treatments available to smokers with unipolar depression found little differences in outcomes between individuals with and without depression. However, women with depression were associated with poorer outcomes. Previous studies indicate bupropion, nortriptyline, and NTR with mood management all effective in smokers with depression. Additionally, a long-term study of varenicline displayed continuous abstinence up to 52 weeks without any additional psychiatric side effects.

Bipolar depression

Few studies investigated cessation treatments in smokers with bipolar depression; two small-scale studies of bupropion and varenicline indicated positive results. However a long-term varenicline study found increased abstinence rates at the end of the trial, but not at 6 month follow-up. Some individuals taking varenicline reported suicidal ideation, but this did not differ from the control group.

Anxiety disorders

An analysis investigating both monotherapy and combination psychotherapies found anxiety disorders to predict poor outcomes at follow-up. Despite combination psychotherapy doubling the likelihood of abstinence in non-anxious smokers, neither monotherapy or combination therapy were more effective than placebo in smokers with a lifetime anxiety disorder. However, unipolar and bipolar only touched on pharmaceutical treatments.

PTSD (Post Traumatic Stress Disorder)

Studies investigating cessation in PTSD sufferers found higher abstinence rates in integrative care treatment, in which cessation treatment is integrated into pre-existing mental healthcare where therapeutic relationships and a set schedule already exist. A pilot study investigating integrative care with bupropion found increased abstinence at 6 months. However, a contingency management trial found no differences between controls, although it’s possible this was due to small numbers.

Standard treatments to help people quit smoking are safe and effective for those of us with mental illness.

Standard treatments to help people quit smoking are safe and effective for those of us with mental illness.

Discussion

Clinical practice should prioritise cessation treatments for individuals suffering mental illnesses, in order to protect against the high rates of tobacco related death and disease in this population.

This review shows that smokers with mental illness are able to make successful quit attempts using standard cessation approaches, with little adverse effects.

Several studies suggested bupropion and varenicline effective in schizophrenia, and varenicline in unipolar and bipolar depression. However, it should be noted, these studies only investigated long-term depression, not situational depression.

Furthermore, all the participants in the studies reviewed were in stable condition, therefore it’s possible outcomes may be different when patients are not as stable. Individuals whom are not stable will have additional psychiatric challenges, may less likely to stick with their treatment regime, and may be more sensitive to relapse.

It should be noted that this was a ‘state of the art’ review, rather than a systematic review or meta-analysis. Therefore- as all literary reviews-it’s subject to bias and limitations, with possible exclusion of evidence, inclusion of unreliable evidence, or not being as comprehensive as if this were a meta analysed. For example, some of the author’s own files are used along side the literary search, but (presumably unpublished) data from other researchers are not sought out or included. Many of the studies included differed in design (some placebo controlled, some compared against a different active treatment ect.) therefore caution should be taken when drawing comparisons across studies.

Additionally, some sections appeared to be much more thorough than others. For example, schizophrenia is covered extensively, including NTR, psychosocial, and pharmaceutical approaches. While all anxiety disorders appeared to be gaped together as one (as opposed to looking at social anxiety, GAD, or panic disorder) and were not explored in detail, drawing little possible treatment conclusions. Finally, this was great literary review, which provided much information, but at times it did feel a bit overwhelming to read and difficult to identify the key information from each sections.

Service users who smoke are being increasingly marginalised, so practical evidence-based information to support quit attempts at the right time is urgently needed.

Service users who smoke are being increasingly marginalised, so practical evidence-based information to support quit attempts at the right time is urgently needed.

Links

Primary paper

Tidey JW and Miller ME. Smoking cessation and reduction in people with chronic mental illness. BMJ 2015;351:h4065

Other references

Lasser K, Boyd JW, Woolhandler S, et al. Smoking and mental illness: a population-based prevalence study.JAMA 2000;284:2606-10 [PubMed abstract]

Lawrence D, Mitrou F, Zubrick SR. Smoking and mental illness: results from population surveys in Australia and the United States. BMC Public Health 2009;9:285

Smith PH, Mazure CM, McKee SA. Smoking and mental illness in the US population. Tob Control 2014;23:e147-53.[Abstract]

Weinberger AH, Pilver CE, Desai RA, et al. The relationship of major depressive disorder and gender to changes in smoking for current and former smokers: longitudinal evaluation in the US population. Addiction 2012;107:1847-56. [PubMed abstract]

Cook BL, Wayne GF, Kafali EN, et al. Trends in smoking among adults with mental illness and association between mental health treatment and smoking cessation. JAMA 2014;311:172-82 [PubMed abstract]

Callaghan RC, Veldhuizen S, Jeysingh T, et al. Patterns of tobacco-related mortality among individuals diagnosed with schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, or depression. J Psychiatr Res 2014;48:102-10 [PubMed abstract]

Kelly DL, McMahon RP, Wehring HJ, et al. Cigarette smoking and mortality risk in people with schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 2011;37:832-8 [Abstract]

Photo credits

– See more at: http://www.nationalelfservice.net/mental-health/substance-misuse/smoking-and-chronic-mental-illness-whats-the-best-way-to-quit-or-cut-down/#sthash.NvTaK7E6.dpuf

Drug-using offenders with co-occuring mental illness

Posted on by meryemgrabski

by Meg Fluharty @MegEliz_

This blog originally appeared on the Mental Elf site on 15th October 2015.

shutterstock_314454056

Many individuals in the criminal justice system have both mental health and substance use problems. There is little evidence targeting the treatment programmes for offenders, alongside the additional challenges faced by those with co-occurring mental illnesses.

The Cochrane Drugs and Alcohol Group have published a set of four reviews centred on interventions for drug-using offenders. This is an updated review, targeting offenders with co-occurring mental illnesses, which was originally published in 2006. We blogged about the review when it was last updated in March 2014, but this new version has more evidence (3 new RCTs) included.

About 30% of acquisitive crime (burglaries, theft and robberies) are committed by individuals supporting drug use.

Methods

The review authors searched the usual comprehensive list of databases to identify randomised controlled trials (RCTs) to identify whether treatments for drug using offenders with co-occurring mental illnesses:

  • Reduced drug use
  • Reduced criminal activity
  • Whether the treatment setting affected the intervention
  • Whether the type of treatment affected the outcome

All participants, regardless of gender, age or ethnicity, were included in this analysis.

The updated search (from March 2013 – April 2014) added 3 new trials to the review, totalling 14 publications representing 8 trials published between 1999 and 2014.

Study characteristics

  • 6 studies were conducted in secure settings and 2 studies were conducted in a court setting
  • No studies assessed pharmacological treatments or were conducted in the community
  • All studies were conducted in the United States
  • Study duration varied from 3 months to 5 year follow-up
  • 7 studies investigated adult offenders, while one study investigated adolescent offenders (aged 14 -19)
  • 3 studies included female offenders, while adult male offenders filled the majority of the population in the remaining studies.

Results

Therapeutic community and aftercare versus treatment as usual

Impact on drug use (self-report)

  • Two studies reported a reduction in drug use:
    • (Sacks, 2004) (RR 0.58 95% CI 0.36 to 0.93, 139 participants)
    • (Sacks, 2008) (RR 0.73, 95% CI 0.53 to 1.01, 370 participants)
  • One study reported no reduction:
    • (Wexler, 1999) (RR 1.11 95% CI 0.82 to 1.49, 576 participants)

Impact on criminal activity

  • Two studies reported no reduction in re-arrests following treatment:
    • (Sacks, 2008) (RR 1.65, 95% CI 0.83 to 3.28, 370 participants)
    • (Wexler, 1999) (RR 0.96, 95% CI 0.82 to 1.13, 428 participants)
  • Three studies evaluated the impact of therapeutic community treatment using re-incarceration measures
    • Two studies reported reductions:
      • (Sacks, 2004) (RR 0.28, 95% CI 0.13 to 0.63, 193 participants)
      • (Sacks 2011) (RR 0.49, 95% CI 0.27 to 0.89, 127 participants)
    • One study found no effects:
      • (Sacks, 2008) (RR 0.73, 95% CI 0.45 to 1.19, 370 participants)

Mental health court and case management versus treatment as usual (standard court proceedings)

Impact on drug use (self-report)

  • No data available

Impact on criminal activity

  • One study reported no reduction in criminal activity:
    • (Cosden, 2003) (RR 1.05, 95% CI 0.90 to 1.22, 235 participants)

Motivational interviewing and cognitive skills versus relaxation therapy

Impact on drug use (self-report)

  • Two studies reported no reduction in drug use:
    • (Stein 2011) (MD -7.42, 95% CI -20.12 to 5.28, 162 participants)
    • (Lanza 2013) (RR 0.92, 95% CI 0.36 to 2.33, 41 participants)

Impact on criminal activity

  • No data available

Interpersonal psychotherapy versus a psychotherapy versus a psycho-educational intervention

Impact on drug use (self-report)

  • One study reported no reduction in drug use:
    • (Johnson 2012) (RR 0.67, 95% CI 0.30 to 1.50, 38 participants)

Impact on criminal activity

  • No data available

This review suggests that mental health programmes and drug interventions can help reduce criminal activity and re-incarceration rates, but are less effective at reducing drug use.

Discussion

This updated review included eight studies conducted within secure settings and in the judicial system. There were no studies for drug abusing offenders with mental illnesses under parole identified for inclusion within this review. Therefore, it’s difficult to compare if interventions are more beneficial within the community or under probation services.

Additionally, as all studies were conducted in the United States, it’s possible the treatments may not be generalisable outside the American judicial system, and as drug-use was self-report rather than biological measures, some caution needs to be taken when interpreting the results.

Generally, there was large variation across the studies, making comparisons difficult. However, two of the five trials displayed some evidence for therapeutic aftercare in relation to reducing subsequent re-incarceration.

All of the studies in this review were conducted in the US, so there may be issues of generalisability to other countries and judicial/health systems.

Links

Primary paper

Perry AE, Neilson M, Martyn-St James M, Glanville JM, Woodhouse R, Godfrey C, Hewitt C. Interventions for drug-using offenders with co-occurring mental illness. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2015, Issue 6. Art. No.: CD010901. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD010901.pub2.

Other references

Sacks S, Sacks JY, McKendrick K, Banks S, Stommel J. Modified TC for MICA inmates in correctional settings: crime outcomes. Behavioural Sciences and the Law 2004;22(4):477-501. [PubMed abstract]

Sullivan CJ, McKendrick K, Sacks S, Banks S. Modified therapeutic community treatment for offenders with MICA disorders: substance use outcomes. American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse 2007; Vol. 33, issue 6:823-32. [0095-2990: (Print)] [PubMed abstract]

Sacks JY, McKendrick K, & Hamilton ZK. A randomized clinical trial of a therapeutic community treatment for female inmates: outcomes at 6 and 12 months after prison release. Journal of Addictive Diseases 2012;31(3):258-69. [PubMed abstract]

Sacks JY, Sacks S, McKendrick K, Banks S, Schoeneberger M, Hamilton Z, et al. Prison therapeutic community treatment for female offenders: Profiles and preliminary findings for mental health and other variables (crime, substance use and HIV risk). Journal of Offender Rehabilitation 2008;46(3-4):233-61. [: 1050-9674] [Abstract]

Prendergast ML, Hall EA, Wexler HK. Multiple measures of outcome in assessing a prison-based drug treatment program. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation 2003;37:65-94. [Abstract]

Prendergast ML, Hall EA, Wexler HK, Melnick G, Cao Y. Amity prison-based therapeutic community: 5-year outcomes. Prison Journal 2004;84(1):36-50. [Abstract]

Wexler HK, DeLeon G, Thomas G, Kressel D, Peters J. The Amity prison TC evaluation – re incarceration outcomes. Criminal Justice and Behavior 1999a;26(2):147-67. [Abstract]

Wexler HK, Melnick G, Lowe L, Peters J. Three-year re incarceration outcomes for Amity in-prison therapeutic community and aftercare in California. The Prison Journal1999b;79(3):321-36. [Abstract]

Cosden M, Ellens JK, Schnell JL, Yamini-Diouf Y, Wolfe MM. Evaluation of a mental health treatment court with assertive community treatment. Behavioral Sciences and the Law2003;21(4):415-27. [Abstract]

Stein LA, Lebeau R, Colby SM, Barnett NP, Golembeske C, Monti PM. Motivational interviewing for incarcerated adolescents: effects of depressive symptoms on reducing alcohol and marijuana use after release. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs2011;72(3):497-506. [PubMed abstract]

Lanza PV, Garcia PF, Lamelas FR, Gonzalez-Menendez A. Acceptance and commitment therapy versus cognitive behavioral therapy in the treatment of substance use disorder with incarcerated women. Journal of Clinical Psychology 2014;70(7):644-57. [DOI:10.1002/jcip.22060]

Johnson JE, Zlotnick C. Pilot study of treatment for major depression among women prisoners with substance use disorder. Journal of Psychiatric Research 2012;46(9):1174-83. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2012.05.007]

– See more at: http://www.nationalelfservice.net/mental-health/substance-misuse/drug-using-offenders-with-co-occurring-mental-illness/#sthash.CnpCuCWr.dpuf

Antidepressants during pregnancy and risk of persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn

Posted on by meryemgrabski

by Meg Fluharty @MegEliz_

This blog originally appeared on the Mental Elf site on 2nd July 2015.

Persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn (PPHN) is associated with increased morbidity and mortality of infants and occurs in 10-20 per 10,000 births.

Those who survive face chronic lung disease, seizures, and neurodevelopmental problems as a result of hypoxemia and aggressive treatment (Walsh-Sukys et al 2000; Farrow et al 2005; Clark et al 2003; Glass et al 1995).

Based on a single study in 2006, the FDA issued a public health advisory that late pregnancy exposure to SSRIs may be associated with an increased risk of PPHN (FDA 2015; Chambers 2006). However, a review yielding conflicting findings led the FDA to conclude that they were premature in their conclusion.

This is the background to a new study by Huybrechts et al (2015), which sets out to investigate SRRI and non-SSRI antidepressants and the associated risk of PPHN in late stage pregnancy.

PPHN is a potentially fatal condition affecting mainly full-term babies, in which the blood flow to the lungs shuts down because the main arteries to the lungs constrict.

Methods

Cohort and data

Participants were drawn from the Medicaid Analytic eXtract (MAX) cohort, which holds the health records of medicate beneficiaries in the United States.

Antidepressants

If women filled 1 antidepressant prescription 90 days before delivery, they were considered ‘exposed.’ Antidepressant medications were classified as either SSRIs (Selective Serotonin Re-uptake Inhibitors) or non-SSRIs. Women exposed to both types of antidepressant were excluded from the analysis. A reference group of women was created, whom had not been exposed to either SSRI or non-SSRIs at any time during pregnancy.

Persistent Pulmonary Hypertension of the Newborn (PPHN)

PPHN was defined by the ICD-9 diagnostic criteria for persistent foetal circulation or primary pulmonary hypertension in the first 30 days following delivery.

Analysis

A sensitivity analysis was conducted to control for possible misclassification, with exposure status defined as filling 2 prescriptions during 90 days before delivery, and outcome redefined as only severe cases of PPHN (respiratory assistance, extracorporeal membrane oxygenation, or inhaled nitric oxide therapy).

This very large (3.8 million pregnant women) population-based study included mothers in the US on low income and with limited resources.

Results

Within 3,789,330 pregnancies, 3.4% of women used antidepressants in the 90 days before delivery, of which 2.7% were SSRIs and 0.7% were non-SSRI antidepressants.

Antidepressant versus non-use

  • 31.0 (95% CI, 28.1 to 34.2) per 10,000 infants exposed to antidepressant use had PPHN
  • 20.8 (95% CI, 20.4 to 21.3) per 10,000 infants not exposed to antidepressant use had PPHN

SSRI versus non-SSRI antidepressant use

  • 31.5 (95% CI 28.3 to 35.2) per 10,000 infants exposed to SSRIs had PPHN
  • 29.1 (95% CI 23.3 to 36.4) per 10,000 infants exposed to non-SSRIs had PPHN

Depression diagnosis

After restricting to a diagnosis of depression:

  • 33.8 (95% CI, 29.7 to 38.6) per 10,000 infants exposed to SSRIs had PPHN
  • 34.4 (95% CI, 26.5 to 44.7) per 10,000 infants exposed to non-SSRIs had PPHN
  • 14.9 (95% CI 23.7 to 26.1) per 10,000 infants not exposed to antidepressant use had PPHN

Sensitivity analysis

  • Women who filled 2 prescriptions in the 90 days before delivery did not have stronger associations
  • Changing the definition for PPHN did not alter associations in either SSRIs or non-SSRIs

The chances of a baby getting PPHN when its mother was not taking an SSRI are around 2 in 1,000, compared to around 3 in 1,000 when the mother had taken an SSRI in the last 90 days of pregnancy.

Discussion

Overall, the authors found evidence that SSRI exposure in the last 90 days of pregnancy may be associated with an increased risk of PPHN. However, the magnitude of risk observed is less than has previously been reported. Furthermore, sensitivity analyses did not amplify these risks.

The authors conclude by suggesting clinicians should take the increase of risk of PPHN into consideration when prescribing these drugs during pregnancy.

Limitations

There are a few limitations in this study to be noted:

  • Possible misclassification of the exposure or outcome, (e.g. filling a prescription does not guarantee it was taken as prescribed) which may bias the results. However, the authors did conduct a sensitivity analysis in order to control for this.
  • The baseline characteristics varied between women taking antidepressants and those who did not, with women prescribed antidepressants more likely to be older, white, taking other psychotropic medicines, be chronically ill, be obese, smoke, and have health care issues. While the SSRI and non-SSRI groups were more comparable, non-SSRI women had higher overall illness, more comorbidities, and co-medication use. Additionally, the participant population was drawn from a relatively low-income group, in which comorbid illness is likely to be higher than general populations, which may account for the difference in risk of previous studies.

This evidence would suggest that the benefits of antidepressants taken during pregnancy outweigh the risks of rare events such as PPHN.

Professor Andrew Whitelaw, Professor of Neonatal Medicine at the University of Bristol, said of the study:

Taking this study with the previous evidence, I conclude that there is a slightly increased risk of PPHN if a pregnant woman takes an SSRI but this only brings the risk up to 3 per 1000 births. I do not suggest that seriously depressed pregnant women should be denied SSRI treatment, but it would be wise for them to deliver in a hospital with a neonatal intensive care unit in case PPHN does occur.

Links

Primary paper

Huybrechts K, Bateman B, Palmsten K, Desai R, Patorno E, Gopalakrishnan C, Levin R, Mogun H, Hernandez-Diaz S. (2015) Antidepressant Use Late in Pregnancy and Risk of Persistent Pulmonary Hypertension of the Newborn. 2015: 313(21). [Abstract]

Other references

Walsh-Sukys MC, Tyson JE, Wright LL et al. (2000) Persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn in the era before nitric oxide: practice variation and outcomes. Pediatrics. 2000;105(1 pt 1):14-20. [PubMed abstract]

Farrow KN, Fliman P, Steinhorn RH. (2005) The diseases treated with ECMO: focus on PPHN. Semin Perinatol. 2005;29(1):8-14. [PubMed abstract]

Clark RH, Huckaby JL, Kueser TJ et al. (2003) Clinical Inhaled Nitric Oxide Research Group.  Low-dose nitric oxide therapy for persistent pulmonary hypertension: 1-year follow-up. J Perinatol. 2003;23(4):300-303. [PubMed abstract]

Glass P, Wagner AE, Papero PH et al. (1995) Neurodevelopmental status at age five years of neonates treated with extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. J Pediatr. 1995;127(3):447-457. [PubMed abstract]

US Food and Drug Administration. (2006) Public health advisory: treatment challenges of depression in pregnancy and the possibility of persistent pulmonary hypertension in newborns.

Chambers  CD, Hernández-Diaz  S, Van Marter  LJ,  et al.  Selective serotonin-reuptake inhibitors and risk of persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn. N Engl J Med. 2006;354(6):579-587. [PubMed abstract]

– See more at: http://www.nationalelfservice.net/treatment/antidepressants/antidepressants-during-pregnancy-and-risk-of-persistent-pulmonary-hypertension-of-the-newborn/#sthash.kEFM7Ik8.dpuf

Promoting smoking cessation in people with schizophrenia

Posted on by meryemgrabski

by Meg Fluharty @MegEliz_

This blog originally appeared on the Mental Elf site on 14th May 2015.

shutterstock_276469196People with schizophrenia have a considerable reduction in life expectancy compared to the general population (Osborn et al 2007; Lawrence et al 2013). A number of factors lead to cardiovascular disease (Osborn et al 2007; Lawrence et al 2013; Nielsen et al, 2010) one of which is smoking.People with schizophrenia smoke at much higher rates and more heavily than the general population (Ruther et al 2014, Hartz et al 2014).Stubbs et al (2015) carried out a review to assess the current cessation interventions available for individuals with serious mental illnesses and establish if any disparities currently lie in the delivery of these interventions.60% of premature deaths in people with schizophrenia are due to medical conditions including heart and lung disease and infectious illness caused by modifiable risk factors such as smoking, alcohol consumption and intravenous drug use.

Methods

The authors searched several electronic databases (Embase, PubMed, and CINAHL) using the following keywords: “smoking cessation”, “smoking”, “mental illness”, “serious mental illness” and “schizophrenia.”

Studies were eligible if they included individuals with a DSM or ICD-10 diagnosis of schizophrenia and reported a cessation intervention.

The authors included both observational and intervention studies as well as systematic-reviews and meta-analyses.

This paper is a clinical overview (not a systematic review) of a wide range of different studies relevant to smoking cessation in schizophrenia and other severe mental illnesses.

Results

Pharmacological interventions

 Non-pharmacological interventions

  • The evidence for E-cigarettes was inconsistent, with the authors concluding more evidence was needed before clinicians consider e-cigarettes within mental health settings. Additionally, e-cigarette use in people with schizophrenia should have side effects monitored closely.
  • There was little research on exercise in schizophrenia, but one study found a reduction in tobacco consumption.

Behavioural approaches

  • Behavioural approaches such as offering smoking cessation advice alongside pharmacotherapy have been found successful with no harmful side effects.

Disparities in smoking cessation interventions

  • An investigation of GP practices found individuals with schizophrenia did not receive smoking cessation interventions proportional to their needs.

Support while quitting

  • People with serious mental illnesses experience more severe withdrawal symptoms compared to the general population, and therefore should be given extra support during cessation attempts (Ruther et al 2014).
  • Psychiatrists should re-evaluate choice and the dose of antipsychotic medicine being given after abstinence from smoking is achieved. This is because of nicotine’s metabolic influence on antipsychotic medicine.
  • Alongside smoking cessation, exercise should be promoted among people with schizophrenia to combat weight gain and the increased metabolic risk.

People with serious mental illness are likely to need more support when quitting smoking, because they generally suffer more severe withdrawal symptoms.

Discussion

In light of the findings, the authors suggest several steps for clinicians to help people with schizophrenia quit smoking:

  • Patients’ current smoking status, nicotine dependency, and previous quit attempts should be assessed. Assessing nicotine dependency will help predict the level of withdrawal symptoms the patient is likely to experience upon quitting.
  • Cessation attempts are best timed when the patient is stable. Patients should be thoroughly advised on the process needed to give them the best chance of quitting smoking, Thus, allowing the patient to formulate their quit plan and take ownership of their own quit attempt.
  • Cessation counselling should be provided, particularly what to expect with withdrawal symptoms (e.g. depression and restlessness) and how to cope.
  • Pharmacological support should be provided (Bupropion recommended) when there is even mild tobacco dependence.
  • Clinicians should carefully monitor patients’ medication and fluxions in weight for a minimum of 6 months after quitting smoking, and when needed recommended exercise to combat weight gain.

The authors provide a well laid out summary of their findings, alongside some excellent suggestions for clinicians to consider on how to best promote cessation in practice.

However, it should be stressed that Stubbs et al (2015) only searched for high qualities studies and provided an overview of them –  this is not a systematic review or meta-analysis. They included several types of studies, set little inclusion criteria and listed no exclusion criteria. This is quite different from a systematic review with a meta-analysis, which would set stricter predefined search and eligibility criteria, which identify a set of studies all tackling the same question, thus allowing for the statistical pooling and comparison of these studies.

This is not a systematic review, but it does offer some very useful practical advice for clinicians who are trying to promote smoking cessation.

Links

Primary paper

Stubbs B, Vancampfort D, Bobes J, De Hert M, Mitchell AJ. How can we promote smoking cessation in people with schizophrenia in practice? A clinical overview. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica. 2015: 1-9. 
[PubMed abstract]

Other references

Osborn DPJ, Levy G, Nazareth I, Petersen I, Islam A, King MB. Relative risk of cardiovascular and cancer mortality in people with severe mental illness from the United Kingdom’s General Practice Research Database. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2007;64:242–249.

Lawrence D, Hancock KJ, Kisely S. The gap in life expectancy from preventable physical illness in psychi- atric patients in Western Australia: retrospective analysis of population based registers. BMJ 2013;346: f2539-f.

Nielsen RE, Uggerby AS, Jensen SOW, McGrath JJ. Increasing mortality gap for patients diagnosed with schizophrenia over the last three decades – a Danish nationwide study from 1980 to 2010. Schizophr Res 2013;146:22–27.  
[PubMed abstract]

Ruther T, Bobes J, de Hert M et al. EPA guidance on tobacco dependence and strategies for smoking cessation in people with mental illness. Eur Psychiatry 2014;29:65– 82. 
[PubMed abstract]

Hartz SM, Pato CN, Medeiros H et al. Comorbidity of severe psychotic disorders with measures of substance use. JAMA Psychiatry 2014;71:248–254.

 

Financial incentives for smoking cessation in pregnancy

Posted on by meryemgrabski

By Meg Fluharty @MegEliz_

This blog originally appeared on the Mental Elf site on 11th March 2015.

shutterstock_90615607

Smoking during pregnancy is thought to cause approximately 25,000 miscarriages per year in the United Kingdom (Health and Social Care Information Centre, 2010).

Additionally, smoking while pregnant is attributable to 4-7% of stillbirths (Flenady et al., 2011), and 3-5% of infant deaths (Gray et al., 2009) with these rates even higher in deprived areas, where remaining a smoker during pregnancy is more common (Gray et al., 2009).

In 2009, 24% of women attending antenatal appointments in Scotland were smokers (NHS, 2009). However only 1 in 10 reported using cessation services, and 3% were abstaining by four weeks (Tappin et al., 2010).

A recent Cochrane systematic review suggested financial incentives may be beneficial in helping pregnant women stop smoking, although it concluded that further evidence was needed (Chamberlain et al., 2013). Tappin et al (2015) investigated the effectiveness of shopping vouchers in addition to NHS Stop Smoking Services to aid quit attempts in pregnant women.

Nearly 1 in 4 women attending antenatal appointments in Scotland were smokers (NHS, 2009).

Methods 

The authors conducted a randomised controlled trial of 609 pregnant smokers recruited from NHS Greater Glasgow and Clyde. Women were randomly allocated to routine smoking cessation care (control group) or to routine care and up to £400 in shopping vouchers if they engaged with services and successfully quit smoking (incentives group).

Routine care

Routine specialist pregnancy care involved an initial meeting to discuss quitting smoking and set a quit date. This was followed by 4 weekly telephone calls, and free nicotine replacement therapy for 10 weeks.

Incentives group

The incentives group received £50 in shopping vouchers for attending the initial meeting to set a quit date. If participants were smoke-free 4 weeks later, they would receive another £50 voucher, and if smoke-free at 12 weeks, participants received £100 in gift vouchers. Between 34-38 weeks gestation, women were once again asked smoking status, and those who had quit received a final £200 voucher. In all instances, smoking status was verified by a carbon monoxide breath test. 

Women who successfully quit smoking in this study received up to £400 in shopping vouchers.

Results 

  • More women successfully quit smoking in the incentives group (22.5%) than the routine care group (8.6%).
  • There was a higher quit rate at 4 weeks in the incentives group compared to the routine care group.
  • 12 months after quit date, there was still large difference in self-reported quit rates (15% incentives, 4% control).
  • Women lost to follow-up were assumed to be smokers, which was validated by analysing residual routine blood samples for cotinine.

shutterstock_56322052

Summary

This study demonstrated that financial incentives with routine care could be beneficial in motivating quit attempts in pregnant smokers, as well as aiding them in continuing to abstain up to 12 months after their quit date. Furthermore, the quit rates reported in this trial were larger than many pharmaceutical (Coleman et al., 2012) or behavioural (Chamberlain et al., 2013) intervention trials in pregnant women. Although, it should be noted that women in the control group had higher nicotine addiction scores than those in the incentives group.

While the evidence from this study suggests using financial incentives may be beneficial in helping pregnant smokers to stop, there may be practical and ethical issues in implementing this as an intervention.

Additionally, other studies are needed to determine the generalizability and possible cost effectiveness of this intervention, as well as what cessation services are best suited to pair with financial incentives. However, it will be interesting to see how this study may be used to inform future policy.

Links

Tappin D, Bauld L, Purves D, Boyd K, Sinclair L, MacAskill S et al. Financial incentives for smoking cessation in pregnancy: randomised controlled trial (pdf). BMJ 2015; 350:h134

Health and Social Care Information Centre, Infant feeding survey 2010 (pdf). HSCIC, 2012. www.hscic.gov.uk/pubs/ifs2005.

Flenady V, Koopmans L, Middleton P, Frøen JF, Smith GC, Gibbons K, et al. Major risk factors for stillbirth in high-income countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet 2011;377:1331-40. [Abstract]

Gray R, Bonellie SR, Chalmers J, Greer I, Jarvis S, Kurinczuk J, et al. Contribution of smoking during pregnancy to inequalities in stillbirth and infant death in Scotland 1994-2003: retrospective population based study using hospital maternity records. BMJ 2009;339:b3754.

Information Services Division, NHS National Services Scotland. Births and babies: smoking and pregnancy, 2009. www.isdscotland.org/isd/2911.html.

Tappin DM, MacAskill S, Bauld L, Eadie D, Shipton D, Galbraith L. Smoking prevalence and smoking cessation services for pregnant women in Scotland. Subst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2010;5:1.

Coleman T, Chamberlain C, Davey MA, Cooper SE, Leonardi-Bee J. Pharmacological interventions for promoting smoking cessation during pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2012;9:CD010078. [Abstract]

Chamberlain C, O’Mara-Eves A, Oliver S, Caird JR, Perlen SM, Eades SJ, et al. Psychosocial interventions for supporting women to stop smoking in pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2013;10:CD001055

– See more at: http://www.thementalelf.net/mental-health-conditions/substance-misuse/financial-incentives-for-smoking-cessation-in-pregnancy/#sthash.upeNCXSE.dpuf

Helping people with depression return to work

Posted on by meryemgrabski

By Meg Fluharty, @MegEliz_

This blog originally appeared on the Mental Elf blog on 27th January 2015.

shutterstock_213396637

Depression is a major public health concern, with a wide range of symptoms, including hopelessness, fatigue, impaired concentration, feelings of inadequacy, as well as slowed thought and movement processing (APA 2013).

These symptoms not only impact upon an individuals’ personal life, but can impair social functioning and the ability to work (Hirschfeld 2000, Lerner 2008).

Within the US, depression was related to 27.2 lost workdays per ill worker per year, and a total of $36.6 billion capital lost in the US labour force (Kessler, 2006).

A new Cochrane systematic review and meta-analysis aims to evaluate the effectiveness of the current interventions available for reducing workplace disability in depressive disorder (Nieuwenhuijsen et al, 2014).

A US study from 2006 found that depression was related to 27.2 lost workdays per ill worker per year.

Methods

The authors searched the following databases between January 2006 and January 2014: CENTRAL, MEDLINE, psychINFO, EMBASE, and CINAHL. Studies were included if they were:

  • Randomised controlled trials (RCT) or cluster RCTs
  • Participants were adults (17+)
  • Participants were from occupational health, primary care, or outpatient care settings
  • Depressive criteria met diagnostic criteria, was assessed by a self-reported symptom scale, or by a clinical rated instrument.

Studies were excluded if participants had a primary diagnosis of a psychiatric disorder other than depressive disorder including bipolar depression and depression with psychotic tendencies.

The authors included both workplace (modify the task or hours) and clinical (antidepressant, psychological, or exercise) interventions, and the primary outcome examined was the number of illness-related absences from work during follow up (Nieuwenhuijsen et al, 2014).

Workplace adjustments

Results

The original search yielded a total of 11,776 studies, and resulted in a full text assessment of 73 studies. 50 studies were excluded at the full-text stage- resulting in 1 study included in qualitative synthesis only, and 22 studies included within the meta-analysis.

Overall there were 20 RCTs and 3 Cluster RCTs, totalling 6,278 participants ranging from 20-200 participants between studies. 7 studies recruited from primary care settings, 10 from outpatient, 2 from occupational health, 1 from a managed care setting, and 1 was conducted in a community mental health centre (Nieuwenhuijsen et al, 2014).

Work directed interventions

5 work-directed interventions were identified:

  • There was moderate evidence that a work-directed intervention plus a clinical intervention reduced sick days when compared to clinical intervention alone or a work intervention alone
  • There was low evidence that an occupational therapy and return to work program was beneficial over occupational care as usual

The review found evidence to support a combination of work-directed interventions and clinical interventions.

Antidepressants

6 studies investigated and compared the effectiveness of different antidepressant use, including SSRI, SNRI, TCA, MAO, and placebo:

  • There was no difference between SSRIs and TCAs in reducing sickness absence, while another study found low quality evidence that either TCAs or MAOs reduced absences over placebo
  • Overall, the results of this category were inconsistent

Psychological therapies

  • There was moderate evidence of online or telephone CBT against occupational care as usual for reduction of absences
  • Two studies displayed no evidence that community health nurse interventions helped any more than care-as-usual

Psychological therapies combined with antidepressants

  • Two studies found that enhanced primary care did not decrease sick days over 4-12 months, and another longer term study found similar results
  • However, there was high quality evidence that a telephone outreach management program can be effective in reducing sick leave compared to care-as-usual

Exercise

  • There was low quality evidence that exercise was more effective than relaxing in sickness absence reduction
  • However, there was moderate evidence that aerobic exercise was not more effective than relation or stretching

The review found evidence to support the use of telephone outreach management programs (stern Matron optional).

Discussion

This review evaluated a number of RCTs investigating work or clinical interventions. However, in each category, there was a large amount of variation between the studies and very few studies per category making comparisons difficult.

There was moderate evidence that work-directed interventions combined with a clinical intervention reduced sick leave, and that primary or occupational care combined with CBT also reduced absences. Additionally, there was evidence that a telephone outreach management program with medication reduced absences from work compared to care as usual.

This suggests the need for more research on work-directed interventions to be paired with clinical care, as they have the potential to reduce illness-related absences, but there are currently limited studies evaluating these interventions (Nieuwenhuijsen et al, 2014).

primary or occupational care combined with CBT also reduced absences.

Links

Nieuwenhuijsen K, Faber B, Verbeek JH, Neumeyer-Gromen A, Hees HL, Verhoeven AC, van der Feltz-Cornelis CM, Bültmann U. Interventions to improve return to work in depressed people. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2014, Issue 12. Art. No.: CD006237. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD006237.pub3.

American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition. Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association, 2013.

Hirschfeld RM, Montgomery SA, Keller MB, Kasper S, Schatzberg AF, Moller HJ, et al. Social functioning in depression: a review. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 2000; 61 (4):268–75. [PubMed abstract]

Lerner D, Henke RM. What does research tell us about depression, job performance, and work productivity? (PDF) Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine 2008; 50(4):401–10.

Kessler RC, Akiskal HS, Ames M, Birnbaum H, Greenberg P, Hirschfeld RM, et al. Prevalence and effects of mood disorders on work performance in a nationally representative sample of U.S. workers. American Journal of Psychiatry 2006; 163(9):1561–8.

Department of Health (2012). Advice for employers on workplace adjustments for mental health conditions (PDF). Department of Health, May 2012.

– See more at: http://www.thementalelf.net/mental-health-conditions/depression/helping-people-with-depression-return-to-work/#sthash.7fnmUfRX.dpuf

One new drug a week: club drugs and novel psychoactive substances

Posted on by oliviamaynard

By Meg Fluhart, @MegEliz_

This blog originally appeared on the Mental Elf blog on 24th October 2014

A recent report from the Faculty of Addictions at the Royal College of Psychiatrists has highlighted the changing face of drug abuse in the UK.

While drug abuse was previously dominated by crack, heroin, and ecstasy, an increasing number of people are being admitted to treatment for harm related to club drugs and novel psychoactive substances.

Club drugs are:

Psychoactive substances that are recreationally used in nightclubs, bars, festivals, music events, circuit and house parties.

Novel Psychoactive Substances (NPS) are synthesised to mimic traditional drugs and are marketed “not for human consumption” to avoid detection. They are sold under the guise of bath salts or other chemicals (Royal College of Psychiatrists, 2014).

The

Current problems

Serious harm

  • There is increasing evidence of risks and long-term effects of these drugs. For example:
    • GHB has a very small degree of dosing between euphoria and one resulting in coma or death (Club Drug Clinic, 2013)
    • Long term methamphetamine use may result in psychotic states
    • Ketamine can cause kidney and bladder problems
    • Mephedrone use can result in heart problems

New users, more drugs

  • Each year 1 million adults are estimated to use club drugs per year in the UK (National Treatment Agency for Substance Misuse, 2012), and this population of users has not just switched from crack and heroin but has emerged from a diverse population of students, ‘clubbers’ and LGBT communities
  • Additionally, the number of available drugs is growing, with a new NPS per week becoming available in Europe via the internet outlets (European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, 2012)

Unprepared services

  • Club drug and NPS users tend to not perceive current drug services as for them and are therefore more likely to receive treatment in alternative care facilities such as sexual or mental health clinics (National Treatment Agency for Substance Misuse, 2012)
  • Staff in these non-specialists centres have reported feeling unconfident in club drug and NPS assessment, intervention, and referrals
  • Furthermore, even specialist services have historically focused on crack and heroin related harm reduction and need further guidance and training to provide support to individuals with these emerging drug problems

The

Possible solutions

Widen the front door

  • Services need to encourage individuals to engage and seek treatment for club drugs and NPS-related problems, by understanding the population and drug specific problems they may come encounter with (e.g. gay men using mephedrone for sexual enhancement)

Support the front line

  • Information and clinical networks can be established in order to share information, develop knowledge, and keep on top of the rapidly emerging new drugs

‘Connect’ the front line

  • As club drug/NPS users are more apt to wind up in non-specialist treatment, it would be beneficial to integrate all different health centres into a clinical network. This would allow specialised centres to support non-specialist centres, as well as gather information across all different bases

Watch all horizons for harm

  • As many club drugs and novel psychoactive substances are new, little is known about the possible short and long term effects. Therefore healthcare centres from a range of clinical areas should be monitoring and recording club drug/NPS incidences (e.g. emergency/acute care, primary care, sexual health, and mental health services)

Promote research into club drugs and novel psychoactive substances

  • With the increase of new drugs on the market, funders should consider prioritising resources towards club drugs and novel psychoactive substances
  • Due the diverse population of users and context of club drugs, we cannot assume the same interventions that are established with crack and heroin will work with these drugs. Therefore, future research proposals should consider club drug/NPS treatment interventions

Empower users through education

  • A main priority should be to provide the public with high quality and comprehensive information on the risks of club drugs and novel psychoactive substances in order to prevent initiation
  • In addition, information on harm reduction must be provided, including advice on safe injection, warnings on increased sexual health risks when using, and material on support and recovery

The report calls for non-specialist staff

Summary

This faculty report has brought to attention the rising problem of club drugs and novel psychoactive substances in the UK, which are popular amongst students, clubbers, and the LGBT community.

The large number of users (estimated at 1 million people per year) has subsequently resulted in new drugs becoming rapidly available via online markets (National Treatment Agency for Substance Misuse, 2012; European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, 2012).

The report authors highlight several key points:

  1. Users of club drugs and novel psychoactive substances are likely to seek alternative treatment to traditional drug specialist centres. Therefore, it is important to train and educate staff in these non-specialist centres so they can confidently provide support and referrals to users
  2. All healthcare centres should work together to monitor and share information on club drug/NPS cases in order to monitor the possible side effects of these rapidly emerging new drugs
  3. Funding bodies should consider shifting the attention from traditional drug use (crack/heroin) to club drugs to determine whether different treatment interventions are needed

Should research funding be directed away from 'traditional' street drugs to these new club drugs and novel psychoactive substances?

Links

One new drug a week: Why novel psychoactive substances and club drugs need a different response from UK treatment providers (PDF). Royal College of Psychiatrists, 2 Sep 2014.

Club Drugs: Emerging Trends and Risks (PDF). National Treatment Agency for Substance Misuse, 2012.

Annual Report 2012 on the State of the Drugs Problem in Europe. European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, 2012.

GHB/GBL. Club Drug Clinic, 2013.

– See more at: http://www.thementalelf.net/mental-health-conditions/substance-misuse/one-new-drug-a-week-club-drugs-and-novel-psychoactive-substances/#sthash.LrMnqRPK.dpuf

Exercise for the prevention and treatment of antenatal depression

Posted on by oliviamaynard

By Meg Fluharty

This blog originally appeared on the Mental Elf blog on 19th September 2014

shutterstock_59173807

Depression occurring during pregnancy, known as antenatal depression, is very common; affecting 10-13% of women (Gavin et al, 2005), which can result in premature labour, low birth weight, and a compromised mother-child relationship (Li et al, 2009; Mancuso et al 2004).

The current treatments include antidepressants and psychotherapy (Field et al, 2009; Rethorst et al 2009). However, antidepressant use may result in adverse effects during pregnancy and psychotherapy often has lengthy waiting lists (Einerson et al 2010, Parker et al; 2008).

Exercise is also recommended as a treatment option for mental and physical health during pregnancy, by NICE (NICE, 2006), the Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists (RCOG, 2006) and the American College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists (Artal & O’Tool, 2006).

This study is the first systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials (RCTs) investigating the effectiveness of exercise as a treatment option in antenatal depression (Daley et al, 2014).

Exercise balls are a popular training aid and also a soft place to grab a few minutes sneaky shut-eye.

“Balls to exercise” Insert exclamation mark or question mark as you see fit.

Methods

The authors conducted a literature search of multiple electronic databases, and studies were selected for inclusion if they were RCTs which compared exercise with usual care, a control group or another comparator. Studies were also included which recruited non-depressed, at risk, and depressed participants as the review focused on both prevention and treatment of antenatal depression. Studies were excluded if the intervention was less than 6 weeks (Daley et al, 2014).

The primary outcome was change in depression score between baseline and final antenatal follow-up. The means and standard deviations of the different depression scores were extracted, or calculated if necessary. The standardised mean different (SMD) was calculated in order to summarise the effects across the trials. For the meta-analysis, a random effects model was used, with subgroup analyses in depressed vs. non-depressed patients and aerobic vs. non-aerobic exercise conditions (Daley et al, 2014).

Results

Included studies

Six out of a total of 919 papers were chosen for inclusion in the review and analysis. Studies were primarily excluded if they were not RCTs, did not measure depression, or compared exercise interventions.

All six studies investigated exercise as an intervention versus a control:

  • 2 studies used standard prenatal care
  • 2 used a waiting list
  • 1 used social support
  • 1 used parent education sessions as the control groups

The interventions ranged from 8-12 weeks and were categorised as either aerobic exercise or non aerobic.

In total, there were 406 pregnant women, whose ages ranged from 14-38 and were recruited from 16 weeks gestation.

One study included non-depressed women, and 5 studies included either at risk or participants depressed at baseline (Daley et al, 2014).

Meta-analysis results

  • There was a reduction in depression scores in the exercise groups versus the comparator groups (SMD -0.46, 95%CI -0.87 to 0.05, p=0.03, I2= 68%)
  • There was no difference between women who were:
    • Non-depressed at baseline (SMD -0.74; 95% CI -1.22 to -0.27, p=0.002)
    • Depressed at baseline (SMD -0.41; 95% CI -0.88 to 0.07, p=0.09, I2=70%)
  • There was no difference between:
    • Aerobic exercise interventions (SMD -0.74: 95% CI -1.22 to -0.27 p=0.002)
    • Non-aerobic exercise interventions (SMD -0.41; 95% CI -0.88 to 0.07, p=0.09, I2 =70%)

Exercise during pregnancy may be effective at reducing depression, but bigger and better RCTs are needed before we can be sure of this finding.

Exercise during pregnancy may be effective at reducing depression, but bigger and better RCTs are needed before we can be sure of this finding.

Discussion

Daley et al (2014) present the first meta-analysis of trials investigating the effectiveness as a treatment for antenatal depression. NICE (NICE, 2006), Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists (RCOG, 2006), and the American College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists (Artal & O’Tool, 2006) have all stated that women should consider exercise during pregnancy for mental health benefits, and this review provides evidence to support those guidelines.

However, there are a number of limitations that should be considered:

  • The results show a small to moderate effect size, based on a small number of low to moderate quality studies
  • The studies varied greatly and contained large confidence intervals, which may result in imprecise estimates
  • 5 of the 6 studies were based on women with depression, so the authors cannot conclude whether exercise can be used to prevent depression in pregnancy
  • Tests of subgroup differences in exercise category were based on a single trial, therefore future studies should examine a larger range of exercises (aerobic and non-aerobic)
  • No studies reported on adverse events
  • Publication bias was not investigated due to the small number of trials

Future research should be based on a larger sample, include a wider range of exercise categories, investigate possible adverse events, and include non-depressed women.

While we're waiting for the new research into antenatal depression, don't forget that exercise in pregnancy has all sorts of other important benefits.

While we’re waiting for new research to be published, don’t forget that exercise in pregnancy does of course have all kinds of other undeniable benefits.

Links

Daley AJ, Foser L, Long G, Paler C, Robinson O, Walmsley H, Ward R. The effectiveness of exercise for the prevention and treatment of antenatal depression: a systematic review with meta-analysis. BJOG 2014; DOI: 10.1111/1471-0528.12909 [PubMed abstract]

Gavin NI, Gaynes BN, Lohr KN, Meltzer-Brody S, Gartlehner G, Swinson T. Perinatal depression: a systematic review of prevalence and incidence. Obstet Gynecol 2005;106:1071–83. [PubMed abstract]

Li D, Liu L, Odouli R. Presence of depressive symptoms during early pregnancy and the risk of preterm delivery: a prospective cohort study. Hum Reprod 2009;24:146–53.

Mancuso RA, Schetter CD, Rini CM, Roesch SC, Hobel CJ. Maternal prenatal anxiety and corticotropin-releasing hormone associated with timing of delivery. Psychosom Med 2004;66:762–9. [PubMed abstract]

Field T, Deeds O, Diego M, Hernandez-Reif M, Gauler A, Sullivan S, et al. Benefits of combining massage therapy with group interpersonal psychotherapy in prenatally depressed women. J Body Mov Ther 2009;13:297–303. [PubMed abstract]

Rethorst CD, Wipfli BM, Landers DM. The antidepressive effects of exercise: a meta-analysis of randomized trials. Sports Med 2009;39:491–511. [PubMed abstract]

Einerson A, Choi J, Einerson TR, Koren G. Adverse effects of antidepressant use in pregnancy: an evaluation of fetal growth and preterm birth. Depress Anxiety 2010;27:35–8 [PubMed abstract]

Parker GB, Crawford J, Hadzi-Pavlovic D. Quantified superiority of cognitive behavioural therapy to antidepressant drugs: a challenge to an earlier meta-analysis. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2008;118:91–7 [PubMed abstract]

Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. Exercise in Pregnancy. Statement No. 4. London: RCOG, 2006.

Antenatal and postnatal mental health: Clinical management and service guidance. NICE CG45, Feb 2007.

Artal R, O’Toole M. Guidelines of the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists for exercise during pregnancy and the postpartum period. Br J Sports Med 2003;37:6–12. [PubMed abstract]

– See more at: http://www.thementalelf.net/mental-health-conditions/depression/exercise-for-the-prevention-and-treatment-of-antenatal-depression/#sthash.oDvrzRsY.dpuf